Abstract
American
Indian/Alaska Natives comprise a small portion of the general college student
population, but often have the poorest health and wellness, as well as the
highest dropout rates compared to any other race or ethnicity. Despite the
well-documented issues this group faces in higher education, they are often
ignored in studies due to their status as the minority within the minority,
comprising only 0.8% of all college students in the US. This study examines the
differences in college students’ overall ratings of health across racial and
ethnic groups, focusing specifically on the health and wellness of AI/AN
students compared to their counterparts. This paper also investigates the
physical health issues students experienced in the past 12 months and the
health issues’ impact on their academic achievement. Results showed that AI/AN
students reported the lowest overall health ratings and the most health issues
in the past year.
Introduction
According to the United States Census
Bureau, approximately 3 million people reported their sole race as American
Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN), and 2.3 million people reported their race as
combined AI/AN and one or more other races (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). These
numbers indicate a shift from the census in 2000, where 2.5 million people
reported their sole race as AI/AN and 4.1 million people reported their race as
combined AI/AN and one or more other races (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011).
Although these prevalence rates clearly
show that AI/NA peoples constitute a significant population in the United
States, American Indian/Alaska Natives make up only about 0.8 percent of all
college students nationwide (O'Brien, 1992).
AI/ANs are the minority within the minority of the approximate 19
million college students in the United States (U.S. Department of Education,
2009). College dropout among AI/AN students throughout the United States are
well-documented, however (Braxton, Brier & Steele, 2008; Patterson et al.,
In-press; Tinto, 1975; 1993). According to Brown and Robinson Kurpius (1997),
75 percent to 93 percent of AI/AN students drop out of college prior to degree
completion, and this group, alarmingly, has consistently held the lead in
having the highest dropout rates and lowest graduation rates among minorities
in the United States (Benjamin, Chambers, & Reiterman, 1993; O’Brien, 1990;
Kidwell, 1994; Ponterotto, 1990; Tierney, 1996; U.S. Department of Education, 2009).
Research indicates that AI/AN students enter colleges and universities with
poorer health and wellness issues than their counterparts, placing them at a
greater risk of dropout.
Despite the research on the risks that
AI/AN students face, they are the minority within the minority and,
resultantly, their issues are often easily ignored and statistically considered
unreliable and not significant (Pavel et al., 1998). In terms of succeeding in
college, it is important for any student entering college to be healthy and
have some level of perceived wellbeing. As a group AI/ANs are disproportionately
affected with heart disease, cancer, chronic liver disease, and diabetes and
disproportionately suffer from health inequities than any other group within
the United States (Carter-Pokras & Baquet, 2002; Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2011; Commission on Social Determinants of Health,
2008; IHS, 2003 & 2012; Pan American Health Organization/World Health
Organization, 1999; Wame, 2006). American
Indian/Alaska Native students who evaluate their health and wellness as fair or
poor have higher rates of failing in high school compared to students who rated
their health as good or excellent (Blum et al., 1992).
The purpose of the present paper is to
explore differences in the overall ratings of physical health of college
students self-identifying in differing racial/ethnic groups, as well in the
types of physical issues experienced within the past 12 months. The focus of these analyses was to compare
AI/AN students with students in other racial/ethnic groups. Since this is relatively new research territory
that uses a very large and unique data set, the analyses presented here should
be considered exploratory. As a result, no a priori hypotheses were
tested. Rather, a series of research
questions was identified, and the data was used to answer these questions:
1.
How do AI/AN students compare to
students in other racial/ethnic groups on ratings of general health?
2.
How many physical health issues have
AI/NA students experienced in the past year compared to students in other
racial/ethnic groups?
3. Do
the physical health issues experienced by AI/AN students in the past 12 months
differ from those experienced by students in other racial/ethnic groups in the
same time frame?
Since
females are documented as more willing to report symptoms (Kroenke &
Spitzer, 1998) and to seek treatment (Adamson et al., 2003), we have included
gender as a control variable in each of our analyses.
Method
Data Source and Sample
The American College Health Association
(ACHA) granted permission to use the data in the present study. These data were
collected via four administrations of the National College Health Assessment (NCHA;
Fall 2008, Spring 2009, Fall 2009, and Fall 2010), a bi-annual survey administered
by ACHA since 2000. A sample survey
(ACHA, n.d.c), information about participation history (ACHA, n.d.b), and
information concerning the reliability, validity, and generalizability of
survey results (ACHA, n.d.a) are available from ACHA’s website (http://www.acha-ncha.org/overview.html).
The focus of the present analyses
relates to comparisons of physical health concerns among students from
different racial/ethnic backgrounds, with the primary comparison group being AI/AN
Students; accordingly, these four administrations were selected to allow for a
sufficient number of students in each group, making such group comparisons
statistically feasible. However, since
only undergraduate students are of concern in these analyses, graduate student
responses were removed from the data set.
The resulting sample contained 153,484 student records, 104,426 (68.0%)
identifying as white, 9,066 (5.9%) identifying as Black, 9,941 (6.5%)
identifying as Hispanic, 14,854 (9.7%) identifying as Asian or Pacific
Islander, 2,125 (1.4%) identifying as American Indian, Alaskan Native, or
Native Hawaiian, 5,075 (3.3%) identifying as Biracial or Multiracial, 3,903
(2.5%) identifying as other, and 4,094 (2.7%) unknown.
Although the proportion of AI/AN students
in the final sample is small, the proportion of AI/AN respondents in each
survey administration ranged from 14.1% (Fall 2008) to 37.1% (Spring
2009). The Fall 2009 and 2010
administrations had equivalent proportions of AI/AN participants (24.8% and
24.0%, respectively). In order to
justify pooling the four survey administrations to create a larger sample of AI/AN
Students, it is important to examine the composition and characteristics of the
AI/AN Students in each group. Thus,
across the four administrations, AI/AN Students were compared according to
gender composition and overall health ratings in order to determine if these
four separate groups of students could be considered comparable. Since there were no significant differences
across the four administrations on either variable – general health ratings
(chi square = 14.17, p > .05) and gender (chi square = 12.02, p > .05) –
data from the four administrations were combined for all analyses.
Some additional exclusions were made
based on the racial/ethnic and gender identification items. First, the students who responded “biracial
or multiracial,” or “other,” and those who did not respond at all to the
racial/ethnic identification item were excluded from all subsequent analyses (N = 13,012). The students identifying as biracial and
multiracial were excluded because, while there are certain gene patterns that
may make certain groups more or less susceptible to illness and health issues,
it is the culture that determines how
people in these groups cope with health issues. Since we do not know in
what culture the students who identify as bi-racial or multiracial have been
raised, we really have no idea how they should be expected to cope.
In addition, students who either did not
respond to the gender identification question (N = 3,900) and those who indicated “transgendered” (N = 217) were also excluded. The latter group was excluded because there
were too few students who responded in this way, resulting in empty cells in
the analyses. The resulting sample size
is 139,176 with the number of AI/AN Students in the final sample dropping to
2,098, a decrease of 27 students.
Measures
Racial/Ethnic Identification. This categorical
variable was created based on students’ responses to the item, “How do you
usually describe yourself?” The choices
are White, non-Hispanic; Black, non-Hispanic; Hispanic or Latino/a; Asian or
Pacific Islander; American Indian, Alaskan Native, or Hawaiian; Biracial or
Multiracial; and Other. As mentioned
above, cases were dropped from the analyses if this item was marked Biracial or
Multiracial or Other and if there was no response. The group responding as
American Indian, Alaskan Native, or Hawaiian are identified through out as
AI/AN.
Gender
Identification. This categorical
variable was created based on students’ responses to the item, “What is your
gender?” As mentioned above, cases where
there was no response to this item or where the response was Transgender were
dropped from the analyses.
Overall
Health Rating (OHR). In
order to create this variable, scores from the item, “How would you describe
your general health?” were used. This
item uses a likert-type scale, where 1 indicates poor general health and 5
indicates excellent overall health.
Past
Year Physical Health Issues (PYPHI). Over
a series of four survey items, students were asked to indicate if they
experienced certain categories of health issues over the past 12 months. If they did not experience the health issue,
they simply indicated that they did not experience it in the past 12 months. If
they experienced the issue, they would indicate the degree to which it impacted
their academic performance. The
categories of physical health issues addressed in these four items that are of
interest to the present study are: allergies;
cold/flu/sore throat; chronic health problem or serious illness (e.g.,
diabetes, asthma, cancer); chronic pain; injury (fracture, sprain, strain,
cut); sexually transmitted disease/infection; sinus infection/ear
infection/bronchitis/strep throat; and sleep difficulties. In order to compute the total number of
categories of physical health issues experienced in the past year, students
were given a score of “1” for each category experienced, regardless of the
degree to which it impacted academics.
Those who did not experience that category of health issue in the past
year were given a score of “0”. The
final variable was created by summing the number of categories of physical
health issues experienced in the past year, with scores ranging from 1 to 8.
Data Analysis
Procedures
In order to answer the first two
research questions, 2 Two-Way Analyses of Variance (ANOVA) were used. In both analyses, the main effects of racial/ethnic
identification and gender identification were tested, as well as the
interaction of racial/ethnic and gender identification. In the first ANOVA, the overall health rating
served as the dependent variable, and the second used the total number of
categories of physical health issues experienced in the past 12 months. In order to follow up significant differences
for the racial/ethnic main effect, planned contrasts were used, with the AI/AN student
category as the comparison group (Anderson & Finn, 1996; Ott, 1993; Tabachnik
& Fidell, 2007). Bonferoni’s
Inequality was used to determine the alpha level for each planned contrast
(Anderson & Finn, 1996); with tests of significance being conducted for
four planned contrasts (AI/AN students compared to students in each of the
other race/ethnicity groups), the resulting p value must be less than 0.02 in
order for the difference to be considered statistically significant. Effect
sizes for significant mean differences were computed using Cohen’s d (Cohen,
1988).
To address the final research question,
a chi square analysis was performed for each physical health issue, separately
for males and females, to determine if there were differences in the likelihood
of reporting each illness by racial/ethnic identification within each
gender. The effect size for each
significant chi square analyses was examined using Cramer’s Phi coefficient
(Yatani, n.d.).
Results
Table 1 shows each of the
identification groups’ means and standard deviations for each of the dependent
variables. Table 2 displays the percentages of students in each group who have
experienced each category of physical health issue in the past 12 months.
Differences in Overall
Health Ratings
All three effects that are tested in
the first ANOVA are statistically significant (See Table 3 for F-statistics and
p values). In terms of gender, males
reported better overall general health than females (3.80 versus 3.58). This
represents a mean difference of 0.26 standard deviation units, indicating a
small effect size. In terms of
racial/ethnic identification, AI/AN students have the lowest overall average. However, the results of the planned contrasts
indicate that AI/AN students’ overall health ratings are significantly
different from those students who identify as White (d = -0.19) and those who identify as Black (d = -0.06), both of which can be considered small effects.
The interaction term of racial/ethnic
identification and gender identification is also statistically significant (F = 15.07, p < .001). In order to
aid interpretation of the interaction effect, the mean health ratings of each
subgroup have been plotted in Figure 1. Females in all racial/ethnic groups
report lower overall ratings of general health, but this difference between
males and females is slightly larger for the traditionally underrepresented
groups, Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and AI/AN Students, as compared to White
students. In addition, AI/AN women have
the lowest ratings of overall health as compared to any other group.
Differences in Total
Number of Categories of Physical Health Issues Experienced
For total number of categories of
physical health issues reported in the past 12 months, there are significant
effects for racial/ethnic identification, gender identification, and for the
interaction of racial/ethnic group and gender (See Table 4 for F-statistics and p values). In terms of gender, females report more
categories of physical health issues than males (2.11 versus 1.71), which can
be considered a small effect (Cohen’s d
= 0.24). With regard to racial/ethnic
differences in total number of health issues reported, the planned contrasts
indicate that AI/AN students had significantly higher scores than students in
all other groups. The biggest
differences, with medium effect sizes, are for AI/AN students and Black (d = 0.39), Hispanic (d = 0.34), and Asian students (d = 0.40). There are actually very small differences
between AI/AN students and those identifying as White (d = 0.12).
The interaction of race/ethnicity and
gender is plotted in Figure 2. Although
females in each racial/ethnic group report significantly more physical health
issues each year than males, the gender difference is larger for some groups
than for others. In fact, among AI/AN
students, there is a much larger gender effect than among any of the other
racial/ethnic groups, and AI/AN women have the highest number of reported
physical health issues of any other group.
Differences in
Categories of Physical Health Issues Experienced
Table 2 shows the percentage of
students reporting each physical health issue in the past 12 months by
racial/ethnic group and by gender. In
order to examine differences among students in different race/ethnicity groups,
chi square analyses were performed for each health issue separately for males
and females. To follow up difference
among AI/AN students, an additional chi square was performed comparing AI/AN
males to AI/AN females in terms of the incidence of each physical health
issue. Results are described by health
issue below.
Allergies. Among women, there is a significant
difference in the reported incidence of allergies among the five race/ethnicity
groups (chi square = 43.72, p < 0.001), with the greatest incidence among AI/AN
women (6.1%). The effect size, as
measured by Cramer’s Phi coefficient, is very small, however (0.02). Among men, there is also a significant
difference in the incidence of allergies (chi square = 40.51, p < 0.001). The effect size for this difference is
equally small (0.03), and the highest reported incidence is among Black males
(5.6%). AI/AN men and Asian men report
allergies with equal frequency are second highest in terms incidence. Among AI/AN students, there is no difference
between men and women in the reported incidence of allergies (chi square =
1.43, p < 0.231).
Cold,
flu, and sore throat. AI/AN
women are more likely to report cold, flu, and sore throat in the past 12
months as compared to women in the other race/ethnicity groups (25.6%; chi
square = 354.09, Cramer’s Phi = 0.06). AI/AN
men also have the highest reported incidence of cold, flu, and sore throat, compared
to men identifying as other races/ethnicities (16.9%; chi square = 32.04,
Cramer’s Phi = 0.03). Both of these
effect sizes are considered small. Among
AI/AN students, women have a greater reported incidence of cold, flu, and sore
throat (chi square = 19.69, Cramer’s Phi = 0.10). This effect size is still considered small.
Chronic health problem or serious illness. Among women, AI/AN students have the highest
reported incidence of chronic health problems or serious illnesses in the past
12 months, and the difference is statistically significant (9.0%; chi square =
103.20, p < 0.001; Cramer’s Phi = 0.03).
AI/AN men have the second highest reported incidence of chronic health
problems or serious illnesses in the past 12 months (4.7%), second only to
Black men (5.2%); the differences among
these groups are statistically significant (chi square = 31.65, p < 0.001)
as well, which is a small effect size (Cramer’s Phi = 0.03). AI/AN women are significantly more likely to
report chronic health problems or illness (chi square = 11.98, p < 0.001;
Cramer’s Phi = 0.08).
Chronic
pain. AI/AN women
have the highest incidence of reported chronic pain as compared to women in
other race/ethnic groups (6.8%; chi square = 52.79, p < 0.001; Cramer’s Phi
= 0.02). Race/ethnicity groups also differ
significantly in the incidence of chronic pain for men (chi square = 51.93, p
< 0.001; Cramer’s Phi = 0.03). AI/AN
men are second only to Black men with regard to the incidence of chronic pain
(4.2% versus 5.6%). Among AI/AN
students, women are more likely to report chronic pain than men (6.8% versus
4.2%; chi square = 5.21, p < 0.05, Cramer’s Phi = 0.05)
Injury. There are no significant differences between racial/ethnic
groups in reported injury among women (chi square = 7.22, p < 0.13). Among men, the reported incidence of injury
does vary significantly in the racial/ethnic groups (chi square = 58.18, p <
0.001; Cramer’s Phi = 0.04). Black men
report the highest levels (6.9%), followed by AI/AN men (5.4%). The incidence of physical injury in AI/AN men
and women is equivalent (chi square = 2.52, p < 0.12).
Sexually
transmitted disease/infection (STD/STI). Among both men and women, AI/AN students are
second highest with regard to the incidence of STD/STI. Black men and women have the highest reported
incidence (4.5% and 2.6%, respectively), followed by AI/AN men and women (3.3%
and 2.4%, respectively). The
race/ethnicity difference is significant among both women (chi square =69.5, p
< 0.001; Cramer’s Phi = 0.03) and men (chi square = 87.81, p < .001;
Cramer’s Phi = 0.04). AI/AN men and
women do not differ significantly with regard to incidence of STD/STI (chi
square = 1.57, p < 0.22).
Sinus
infection/ear infection/strep throat. As with cold, flu, and sore throat, AI/AN
women are significantly more likely to report sinus/ear infection and/or strep
throat (11.9%; chi square = 279.84, p < 0.001; Cramer’s Phi = 0.06). AI/AN men also report the greatest incidence
of sinus/ear infection and/or strep throat as compared to men in other race/ethnicity
groups (6.6%; chi square = 42.93, p < 0.001; Cramer’s Phi = 0.03). AI/AN women report this physical health issue
to a significantly higher degree than AI/AN men, however (chi square = 13.75, p
< 0.001; Cramer’s Phi = 0.08).
Sleep
difficulties.
Among the race/ethnicity groups, AI/AN women have the highest incidence
of sleep difficulties (29.8%; chi square = 128.42, p < 0.001; Cramer’s Phi =
0.04). For men, there are significant
differences among the five racial/ethnic groups (chi square = 26.29, p <
0.001; Cramer’s Phi = 0.02). However, AI/AN
men have an incidence of sleep difficulties comparable to men who identify as
White, Hispanic, and Asian (all around 20.0%).
For Black men, the incidence is much lower (16.2%). Among AI/AN students, women have a higher
incidence of sleep difficulties compared to men (chi square = 19.73, p <
.001; Cramer’s Phi = 0.10).
Discussion
Regardless
of gender identification, students who identify as AI/AN Students and Asians
rate their overall physical health lowest, compared to students identifying
with other racial/ethnic groups. Those
students who identify as white have the highest overall health ratings in
comparison to all other groups.
Regardless of racial/ethnic identification, females report the lowest
overall health ratings as compared to males.
However, within some racial/ethnic groups, the differences between males
and females are greater than for other groups.
White and Asian males and females exhibit less of a difference in
overall health ratings as compared to differences between males and females in
all of the other racial/ethnic groups.
As
with overall ratings of health, there were differences by racial/ethnic
identification and by gender in the number of physical health issues
experienced in the past year. American
Indian/Alaskan Native students reported the most health issues, compared to the
other groups, and females reported more issues than males. American Indian/Alaskan Native female
students reported the greatest number of health issues as compared to all other
groups. Results showed differences in the specific types of physical health
differences experienced as well. Both AI/AN
men and women were more likely to experience cold, flu, and sore throat and
sinus infection/ear infection/strep throat as compared to students in other
groups. American Indian/Alaskan women
also had a significantly greater incidence of these acute infections, compared
to AI/AN men. American Indian/Alaskan women also had the highest incidence of
allergies, chronic health problems or serious illnesses, chronic pain, and
sleep difficulties as compared to all other groups.
Although
the effect sizes for each of the differences were small, these differences do warrant
further investigation. From these data,
it is unclear if AI/AN women truly experience more physical health issues or if
they are merely more open to sharing them on a health survey. If AI/AN students, especially women, are more
likely to experience physical health issues, this susceptibility would likely
have a negative impact on their ability to function in the college setting, an
issue that should also be subjected to further investigation.
Conclusion
AI/AN students who enter college are
coming from communities that have been disproportionately affected by chronic
conditions such as heart disease, cancer, chronic liver disease, and diabetes
within the United States (Carter-Pokras & Baquet, 2002; Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2011; Commission on Social Determinants of Health,
2008; IHS, 2003 & 2012; Pan American Health Organization/World Health
Organization, 1999; Wame, 2006). These
young people’s health conditions are a reflection of their communities and, it
seems, they enter college with these health issues.
To
the best of our knowledge, no other study presents findings from a sample size
in the range of these data. While
statistically significant scores were fairly certain due to the very large data
set, effect sizes between groups were mostly low. AI/AN students are fairly
comparable to students in other racial/ethnic groups on ratings of general
health. Again, while there is statistical significance, effect sizes are small.
American Indian/Alaskan Natives report about the same amount and have similar
physical health issues in the past year compared to their count parts. With the
current and persistent high rates of AI/AN college dropout, barriers to college
success should continue to be evaluated. Without knowing the health reports of
AI/AN students who dropped out of college, these findings provide little
guidance toward understanding the connection between AI/AN student health and
college success.
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Table
1
Means
and Standard Deviations of Dependent Variables by Race/Ethnicity and Gender
Group
|
Overall Health Rating
|
Total Physical Health Issues
|
Total
|
Male
|
Female
|
Total
|
Male
|
Female
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Mean
|
SD
|
White
|
3.68
|
0.82
|
3.82
|
0.83
|
3.61
|
0.81
|
2.07
|
1.66
|
1.77
|
1.69
|
2.22
|
1.62
|
Black
|
3.59
|
0.90
|
3.84
|
0.88
|
3.48
|
0.89
|
1.57
|
1.80
|
4.41
|
1.99
|
1.64
|
1.71
|
Hispanic
|
3.58
|
0.88
|
3.78
|
0.87
|
3.48
|
0.87
|
1.70
|
1.66
|
1.53
|
1.75
|
1.79
|
1.60
|
Asian
|
3.54
|
0.87
|
3.67
|
0.88
|
3.47
|
0.86
|
1.63
|
1.54
|
1.46
|
1.62
|
1.73
|
1.49
|
Native
|
3.53
|
0.87
|
3.73
|
0.88
|
3.44
|
0.86
|
2.27
|
1.85
|
1.84
|
1.89
|
2.47
|
1.80
|
Table
2
Incidence of
Physical Health Issues Past 12 Months by Race/Ethnicity and Gender
Physical
Health Issue
|
Race/Ethnic
Group
|
Overall
|
Gender
|
Male
|
Female
|
Allergies
|
White
|
3.5
|
3.7
|
3.4
|
|
Black
|
4.6
|
5.6
|
4.1
|
|
Hispanic
|
3.8
|
4.2
|
3.7
|
|
Asian
|
4.3
|
4.8
|
4.0
|
|
Native
American
|
5.7
|
4.8
|
6.1
|
Cold,
Flu, Sore Throat
|
White
|
19.4
|
15.5
|
21.5
|
|
Black
|
12.0
|
11.9
|
12.1
|
|
Hispanic
|
16.6
|
13.8
|
18.1
|
|
Asian
|
18.7
|
15.2
|
20.7
|
|
Native
American
|
22.9
|
16.9
|
25.6
|
Chronic
Health Problem or Serious Illness
|
White
|
4.5
|
3.4
|
5.1
|
|
Black
|
4.8
|
5.2
|
4.6
|
|
Hispanic
|
4.2
|
3.5
|
4.6
|
|
Asian
|
3.2
|
2.9
|
3.4
|
|
Native
American
|
7.6
|
4.7
|
9.0
|
Chronic
Pain
|
White
|
3.7
|
3.3
|
3.9
|
|
Black
|
4.9
|
5.6
|
4.6
|
|
Hispanic
|
3.9
|
3.5
|
4.1
|
|
Asian
|
3.0
|
2.7
|
3.1
|
|
Native
American
|
6.0
|
4.2
|
6.8
|
Injury
(fracture, sprain, strain, cut)
|
White
|
3.5
|
4.0
|
3.2
|
|
Black
|
4.5
|
6.9
|
3.2
|
|
Hispanic
|
3.8
|
4.6
|
3.3
|
|
Asian
|
3.2
|
3.8
|
2.9
|
|
Native
American
|
4.4
|
5.4
|
3.9
|
Sexually
Transmitted Disease/Infection
|
White
|
1.6
|
2.0
|
1.4
|
|
Black
|
3.2
|
4.5
|
2.6
|
|
Hispanic
|
2.1
|
2.5
|
2.0
|
|
Asian
|
1.5
|
1.7
|
1.4
|
|
Native
American
|
2.7
|
3.3
|
2.4
|
Table 2 continued
Categories of
Physical Health Issues Experienced by Race/Ethnicity and Gender
Physical
Health Issue
|
Race/Ethnic Group
|
Overall
|
Gender
|
Male
|
Female
|
Sinus
Infection/Ear Infection/Strep Throat
|
White
|
7.8
|
5.9
|
8.8
|
|
Black
|
5.7
|
5.5
|
5.8
|
|
Hispanic
|
6.3
|
5.2
|
6.8
|
|
Asian
|
4.3
|
3.7
|
4.7
|
|
Native
American
|
10.2
|
6.6
|
11.9
|
Sleep
Difficulties
|
White
|
21.4
|
20.4
|
21.9
|
|
Black
|
17.0
|
16.2
|
17.3
|
|
Hispanic
|
21.6
|
20.0
|
22.4
|
|
Asian
|
20.8
|
20.0
|
21.3
|
|
Native
American
|
26.8
|
20.5
|
29.8
|
Table
3
Effects
of Racial/Ethnic and Gender Identification on Overall Health Ratings
Source
|
df
|
Mean Square
|
F
|
p
|
Gender
|
1
|
503.03
|
727.92
|
.001
|
Race/Ethnicity
|
4
|
77.65
|
112.37
|
.001
|
Gender
X Race/Ethnicity
|
4
|
15.07
|
21.81
|
.001
|
Error
|
136340
|
0.69
|
|
Total
|
136350
|
|
Table
4
Effects of Racial/Ethnic
and Gender Identification on Total Physical Health Issues Experienced Past 12
Months
Source
|
df
|
Mean Square
|
F
|
p
|
Gender
|
1
|
963.93
|
354.21
|
.001
|
Race/Ethnicity
|
4
|
955.91
|
351.26
|
.001
|
Gender
X Race/Ethnicity
|
4
|
58.67
|
21.56
|
.001
|
Error
|
136340
|
2.72
|
|
Total
|
136350
|
|
